theories and pedagogical strategies
The Evolution of the Technology-Based Learning Environment
Malaysian schools have at various points in time been introduced to various educational technology innovations. In the early days there was Radio Pendidikan (Educational Radio) and schools were provided with cassette recorders to record these programmes. Some schools were given a few units of overhead projectors. When TV began in Malaysia, TV Pendidikan (Educational TV) was introduced and schools also acquired the Video Cassette Recorder (VCR), to enable them to record TV Pendidikan programmes so they might be shown at a convenient time. What has happened to all these innovative hardware? Are teachers using them in the classroom? WHY NOT? Today we have computers, CD ROMS and the internet. Will they meet the same fate like earlier technological innovations in our schools?
Phillips, J. A. (1997) in a paper entitled "The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, a Pedagogical Paradigm in the Use of Multimedia Technology in Enhancing Higher Order Thinking" presented at the 6th SEAMEO INNOTECH International Conference on The Learning Society of the Future, 11-13 Novermber, 1997, Manila, Philippines observed that the introduction of information and communication technology follows 3 tracks.
Track 1 (Techology Familiarisation) is when a school acquires a few computers, placed in a laboratory-type environment where techology familiarisation is emphasised. A common approach is to set up computer clubs with finance provided by parent-teacher associations, charitable oragnisations and the government with focus on learning word processing and spreadsheet applications. In some schools, students and teachers have developed some courseware and main homepages on the web.
Track 2 (Technology Integration) goes beyond familiarisation wherein a small group of enthusiastic teachers attempt to integrate technology and this usually takes the form of computer-assisted instrucion (CAI) where technology is 'fitted' into instruction.
Track 3 (The Technology-Based Learning Environment) is when technology is not a tool that is infused or integrated into the classroom but becomes an integral component of the teaching-learning situation. In other words, a new environment is created in which learners explore things, ideas and their relationships using technology. Existing curriculum have to be redesigned around technology with the aim of developing the multiple minds of the learner. The learner is involved in the acquisition, processing, interpretation and most importantly the construction of knowledge. Technology is also seen as easing the cognitive demands of learners by performing many of the routine tasks while allowing learners to engage in higher order thinking such as problem solving and decision making.
In the TBLE, technology becomes a partner providing guidance and scaffolding as the learner undertakes a myriad of complex tasks. Learners are not passive recipients of knowledge but actively engage in the construction of knowledge. The new technologies are utilised to facilitate learners to build knowledge based on their understanding, prior knowledge, beliefs and experiences. Interestingly, as the new technologies become increasingly more sophisticated, they provide an avenue for learners to externalise their thinking and create knowledge, model relationships, represent knowledge in the form of images, pictures, scripts, ideas and the like.
Constructivism is a perspective of learning that draws from philosophy and psychology. The learner is seen as an active learner who is constantly acting on the information, adapting and creating meaning. The person seeing a snake; knowledge about the snake is constructed not from the object but from the experiences of the person and it is not a representation of the external world or reality. According to  constructivism, "knowledge is knowledge of the knower, not knowledge of the external world; improving knowledge means improving its viability or fit in, but not match with, an external world" (Staver, 1995, p.112).  In other words, reality about the snake is unknowable since the person's experience with the snake is mediated by the person's senses and his or her senses are not inclined to produce an accurate representation of the snake.
According to the constructivists focus is more on learning in context and the process of learning. They believe that there is a real world that learners experience, but that meaning is imposed on the world by the learners, rather than existing in the world independently of them. They also believe that there are many ways to structure the world and there are many meanings or perspectives for any event or concept (Duffy, T. and Jonassen, D. 1991, Constructivism: New implications for instructional technology? Educational Technology. 31, 7-12).
Characteristics of Learning in the Technology-Based Learning Environment (TBLE) based on Constructivist Principles

Based on constructivism, Peter Doolittle (1999) suggested that the technology based learning environment (TBLE) should have the following characteristics:

1) Learning should take place in authentic and real-world 
   environments.

2) Learning should involve social negotiation and mediation
Introduction
The role of technology in teaching has been discussed for decades but its adoption in schools has not been widespread and those that have integrated technology find it difficult to sustain. Why? Among the reasons given is the lack of trained teachers/instructors, lack of financial resources, lack of space, lack of interest by educational leaders and so forth. Perhaps, a more fundamental problem is the lack of a sound theoretical basis guiding policy and practice of technology in teaching and learning which may explain why earlier efforts in educational technology have been less successful. On the other extreme are individuals who conceive of technology as the solution to problems in education which also has met with failure and a waste of valuable resources. Now with the availability of computers and the internet, the issue of integrating technology in teaching and learning has been revived. Will we be successful this time? What do we mean by a theoretical framework? Do we have a theoretical framewok that will guide pedagogical practices?

Behaviourism and Technology
Behaviourisme has been strongly criticised for this structured and rigid approach to learning; not allowing the learner to propose alternatives. Much that is to be learned has been predetermined and learners are required to more or less guess or predict what is in the mind of the teacher/instructor. Reponses that do not adhere to what has been planned are not encouraged; hence discouraging creatvity and "those who to think out of the box". The "one right answer" syndrome dominates much of instruction.

Reading: Behaviourism and Technology
Constructivism and Technology
With advancements in computer hardware, multimedia capabilities, the internet and its tools, interactiveness and user-friendliness has been enhanced. These advancements offer an effective means of implementing constructive strategies. What is constructivism? How is this perspective different from cognitivism?
The cognitivists  subscribe to the perspective that through information processing, an external nature of knowledge and  an independent reality exists and is knowable to the person. For example, when a person sees a snake, knowledge about the snake is the result of the accurate internalisation and (re)construction of external reality. So learning is defined as the building of internal models or representations reflecting the external and "real" world, i.e. the snake. Cognitivists assume that knowledge is external to a learner and that the task of the teacher/instructor is to effectively and efficiently communicate or transfer this knowledge to the learner. Focus is on the processes of learning, how what is learned is represented and organised in the brain.

3) Content and skills should be relevant to the learner.

4) Content and skills should be understood within the framework of the
   learner's prior knowledge
5) Learners should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, self-
   mediated and self-aware.

6) Formative assessment should be frequently used.
7) Teachers encourage examining multiple perspectives and multiple
   representations of content.

8) The role of the teacher is that a facilitator.
Reading:
Constructivism and Technology
          constructivist approach to learning?
  The Technology-Based Learning Environment: 
  A Cognitive-Constructivist Approach that allows for:

1) Situated cognition
   - technology that provides for real-world situations to be
      brought to the classroom
2) Cognitive Flexibility
   - the unique characteristics of multimedia techology allow for
     catering to individual differences; some learners need more
     visual support to understand certain concepts.
3) Modeling
    - learners are able to interact with experts in various fields so
      that they will undertand the thinking process of an expert
4) Reflection
    - learner given the opportunity to think about what they have
      learned and decide on what to do
5) Cooperative Learning
    - learners working in small groups when solving problems
       which are skills relevant in the world of work
6) Collaborative Learning
    - learners from one class or one school collaborate with   
       learners from another class or school, preferably from
       another area or country; working collaboratively in
       cyberspace.
7) Exploration
     - technology allows learners to go beyond what they are
       learning; to explore unchartered paths
8) Articulation
     - to allow learners to articulate and present what they have
       done or their products.
What is Technology?
According to Galbraith (1967) The New Industrial State, Boston: Houghton Mifflin; technology is "the systematic application of scientific or other organised knowledge to practical tasks".

What is Educational / Instructional Technology?
It is the application of what we know about human cognition and various types of technology in the design, development and management of instruction.

The Changing Conceptions of Educational Technology
Excerpts from: David M. Tow & John Arul Phillips, (1982). Educational Technology and the Social Sciences in the University of Malaya. Higher Education. 11, pp.657-668.

Tracing the connception of educational technology Ivor Davies (1978) Prologue: Educational technology: archetypes, paradigms and models" in Hartley, J. & Davies, I. (eds). Contributions to an Educational Technology, vol. 2. London: Kogan Page, identified 3 archetypes, each based on different assumptions and perspectives:
Educational Technology 1: (ET1) The Audio-Visual Archetype emphasises the use of machines, equipment and other aids in instruction. It is in essence a hardware approach to education. The focus of the approach is directed towards the teacher and his/her teaching. "Technology is seen as a means of mechanising or automating the process of teaching with devices that transmit, amplify, distribute, record and reproduce stimuli materials, and thus increase the teacher's impact as well as widen the potential audience (Davies, 1978, p. 13). Davies call the archetype associated with ET1 the 'audio-visual archetype' which was originally developed in the media field in the 1930s and became more prominent after World War II. It looks on audio-vidual hardware as performing such functions as aiding classroom presentations, improving demonstrations by giving access to reality or simulations of reality which the teacher alone is not able to provide readily, or solving logistical problems. eg. the use of CCTV as an answer to the problem of large student numbers. The ET1 approach has frequently been applied in piecemeal and uncoordinated fashion and consequently often did not match, in practice, the words "systematic application" in the broad definition of educational technology given earlier.

Educational Technology 2: (ET2) The Engineering Archetype is concerned with the application of behavioral science principles to improve learning. Although hardware may be used, the focus is on the learner and his/her learning and so it may be termed a software approach. "Technology is seen as a means of providing the necessary knowhow for designing new, or renewing current, worthwhile learning experiences. Machines and mechanisation are viewed merely as instruments of presentation or transmissions" (Davies, 1978, p.13). The approach initially developed in the area of programmed learning in the early 1969s as a result of the work of Skinner on operant conditioning. It was first applied to the design of materials containing content sequences to be learnt one sall setp at a time. Later its application was broadened to cover curriculum and course development. Based on an engineering approach, it takes the form of a series of steps to be followed which begins with a statement of input and definition of objectives, intermediate steps which examine and select instructional strategoes and resources and a terminal step of evaluation and output. Feedback is almost always a part of the process as well. Although historically, ET1 arose after ET2 it cannot be considered as a phase which succeeded ET1. Both developed independently and continue to exist to the present day.

Educational Technology 3: (ET3) The Problem Solving Archetype combined ET1 and ET2 approaches but without retaining rigid adherence to a fixed sequence of procedures characteristic of ET2. "It rejects systematic development (i.e. step-by-step, rigidly mechanical or mechanistic procedures) as the only way of proceeding, in favour of a systemic (i.e. organic rather than mechanistic) set of procedures focusing rather more deeply on the processes as well as on the produc6ts ot teaching and learning, it applies system analysis concepts to education, and its bias is somewhat less towards the individual per se and rather more towards the group or team within which an individual plays a role" (Davies, 1978, p.14). Thus, ET3 is essentially a systemic approach to education. Whether at the level of planning an instructional sequence or developing a curriculum or even designing an institution-wide programme, the approach will attempt to define the boundaries fo the system being considered and take account of all the factors involved. Theses factors may cover many diverse apsects such as ethical considerations of values which are deemed important to inculcate, policies and societal needs. The approach is therefore said to be total, integrated and human in character. While ET3 may employ hardware and software associated with ET1 and ET2, its approach is clealry more flexible and comprehensive than the other two technologies. Hence, it does represent a further development in the conception of educational technology (although in particular situations the distinction between ET2 and ET3 may not always be clearcut).

Conclusion:
The review of the three technologies suggested by Davies reveals a progressive growth in understanding of what educational technology is from ET1 to ET2 to ET3. As they develop in comprehensiveness of approach, the 3 conceptions of educational technology provide a useful framework of reference for examining the part played by educational technology in Malaysian schools, universities, colleges and training centres or institutions.
Educational Technology 4: The Technology-Based Learning Environment (a proposal)
John Arul Phillips in a paper entitled Research in Teaching and Learning in a Technoogy-Based Environment: Theoretical Perspectives Influencing Inquiry Methods, Proceedings of the International Conference on Qualitative Research, October, 2001, Kuala Lumpur, proposed ET4, which views technology as creating a learning environment in which technology is not a tool but rather creates an environment in which teaching and learning takes place.
The unprecedented growth of technology especially in internet interactivity, multimedia capabilties,  and shift in classroom dynamics towards leaner centered approaches provides for the emergence of ET4 or the Technology-Based Learning Environment which is a combination of ET1, ET2 and ET4. Stand alone computers that run short electronic lessons developed using the systems approach may not be adequate. Access to the global network of multimedia information and online learning communities present different conceptions and explanations of learning.  While ET4 is still in its infancy, initial research efforts indicate that technology is most useful when used for startegic purposes in particular contextual settings and content areas. Additionally such uses of technology are successful when teachers and students engage in teaching- learning relationships that focus on data-driven decision making. Vast amounts of information available on the internet create new opportunities to learn in a world-wide context. Increased capacity amd expanded connectivity makes learning with this new medium not only possible but also powerful. Computer supported communication brings content experts and community members into the classroom. They provide real-world examples, model performances, and  offer otherwise unavailable enrichment opportunities for students.
The Field of Educational Technology
Read this brief description of the field of educational technology/ instructional technology.

1) History of Intructional Technology

2) History of Design & Technology

3) A Hypertext Design of Instructional Design

4) Instructional Technology: A History (slide
   presentation)

5) History of Instructional Technology

6) History of Instructional Technology
7) The history of the Internet consists of 8 chapters which gives you
   an insight about the internet.
"It is the theory that decides what can be observed"
- Albert Einstein

"He who loves practice without theory is like the sailor who boards a ship without a rudder and compass and never knows where he may cast"
- Leonardo da Vinci
eLearning evolved as a product of the technological revolution. Euphoria on the role of web technologies facilitating eLearning should not overshadow the role of learning theories in guiding design and implementation.

  eLearning Theoretical Background
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